History of India | Timeline of Indian history from 1857 to 1947 | Indian History Timeline

 History of India

India has four names Hindustan, Bharat, Aryavart, and India. India acquired its independence from the British on the 15 August 1947. But the British military left India finally in 1950. The Indians celebrated first 26 January 1950 because the Republic Day of India.

India the Republic of India, is a nation in South Asia. It is the seventh largest nation by geographical space, the second most populous nation, and probably the most populous democracy on the planet. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a shoreline of seven,517 kilometers (4,671 mi). It borders Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east,and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is within the neighborhood of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Indonesia.

Legacy of science and civilization

Religion

Both the kindness and cruelty of nature made humans think about religion and supernatural power. In India, Brahmanism, Dharma or Hinduism developed in an influential form in the earlier period. It also influenced society with art and literature. Jainism and Buddhism also emerged in India along with Brahmanical religion. Buddhism also gradually disappeared from this country, although it had spread to Japan in the east and to Central Asia in the northwest. Jainism remained in India and continued to inspire the development of art and literature here. Even today the followers of this religion are quite numerous, especially among the merchant classes, in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka.

Chromatic system

The influence of religion in India led to the formation of special types of social classes. The alphabetical rules in India were supported by both the state and religion. The duties of the four classes of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were superseded by law, and it was believed that this varna system was fixed by divine power. Gradually both Kanun and Dharma changed classes and castes from karmic to natal or hereditary. All this was done so that the Vaishyas would continue to produce and pay taxes and keep on shudra wages so that the Brahmins would remain in the rank of priests and on the principle of division of labor and occupation in the post of Kshatriya rulers, this marvelous dynasty in the initial stage Must have helped in social and economic development.

Varna system was also involved in the development of the state. Both the productive class and the working class, namely, the Vaishyas and the Shudras, were disarmed, and gradually each caste was raised up against the other caste in such a way that the declared classes should not unite against the dominant classes. The result of which is dangerous. The people of the lower classes continued to perform their difficult duties with the conviction that in the next life they would be able to live a life of happiness.

As a result of this belief, there were very few fights between kings, priests, officers, fighters and great nobles, who produced them on the one hand, and those who fed them on the other. Therefore, direct action of bullying with lower classes was not very necessary in ancient India.

Ancient India is considered famous for its contribution in the field of philosophy and spirituality. But materialistic ideology about the world also developed in India. Among the six philosophical methods that emerged in India, we find the elements of the Philosophy philosophy, the founder of which Kapil was born in 580 BC. Took place around According to him, there are means of enlightenment. Direct, guess and word. Sankhyadarshana does not assume the existence of God. According to this, nature is created by God, not God. And the regulation of the world and human life is nature itself.

The biggest credit for solidifying the materialistic world is to Charvak, who took place around the sixth century BCE. The 'Parni' he founded is called Lokayat.He is of the opinion that a person who cannot experience by his senses does not really exist. This implies that God does not exist. But with the decline in trade, crafts and urbanization, suffragism became prominent in philosophy.

The suffragist philosophy states that the world is illusion and illusion. In the Upanishads, people have been preached to stay away from worldly matters and try to gain knowledge. Western thinkers have adopted the Upanishads. Because they are unable to solve the problems created by today's mechanical era.

Craft and technology

• The Indians were highly skilled in dyeing crafts and making different colors. The original colors made in India were so bright and solid that the seductive signs of Ajanta and Ellora are still alive.
• Similarly, the people of India were also extremely skilled in making steel. The art of steel making first developed in India. Indian steel exports to other countries began in ancient times.
• No other country in the world could make steel swords like the Indian artisans. From East Asia to Eastern Europe, these swords were heavily mowed.

Science and mathematics

• In ancient times, religion and science were intertwined. In this country, there was a lot of progress in astronomy, because the planets were considered to be deities and a deep observation of their movement started. Study of the planets also became necessary because they were related to changes in seasons and seasons, and information about these changes was necessary in the work of farming.
• Karana and linguistics originated because the Brahmin priests gave great importance to the purity of the utterances of the Vedas and the hymns.
• In fact, the first result of the scientific view of Indians in relation to language is found in the creation of Sanskrit grammar.
• Panini wrote a grammar which is popularly known as "Ashtadhyayi" in the fourth century BC, by systematically storing the rules of Sanskrit language.
• In the third century BC, the development of mathematics, astronomy and medicine started differently. Ancient Indians made three distinct contributions in the field of mathematics - marking method, decimal system and using zero.
• The earliest example of the spiritual method of Prayong is from the early fifth century CE. Arabs adopted the Indian marking system and spread it to the Western world. This alphabet was used in India centuries before it was propagated in Western countries. Its use is found in the records of Ashoka, written in the third century BC. Indian numerals in English are called Arabic numerals (Arabic Numerals).
• The Indian method was first used by Dashmik. Eminent mathematician Aryabhata (376-500 ६) was familiar with it.
• The Chinese learned this method from Buddhist evangelists, and the Western world learned the Aryans when they came in contact with India.
• Void was invented by Indians in the second century BC. Ever since it was invented, Indian mathematicians began to consider it as a separate number and in this way the use of zero began to be calculated.
• The use of zero in the Arab country is first found in 873 AD. The Arabs learned it from India and spread it to Europe.
• Both Indian and Greek have contributed to algebra, but their knowledge in Western Europe came not from Eunant, but from Arabia, which Arab had gained from India.
• Aryabhata figured out the rule of finding the area of ​​a triangle, which resulted in trigonometry. The most famous book of this period is "Suryasiddhanta". No other such work has been found in contemporary ancient east.
• Aryabhata and Varahamihira were two great scholars in astronomy. Aryabhata took place in the fifth century, and Varahamihira in the sixth century, Aryabhata calculated the status of Prahlinaipai method. He found out the reason for lunar eclipse and solar eclipse.
• He estimated the circumference of the Earth on the basis of estimates which are considered to be pure today. He told that the sun is fixed, the earth rotates.
• The name of Aryabhata's book is "Aryabhatiya". The famous work of Varahamihira is "Brihatsahita", it is from the sixth century AD.
• Varahamihir told that the moon revolves around the earth and the earth revolves around the sun. He took the help of many works of Greeks in the study of planetary communication and other astronomical problems. Although Indian astronomers drew from the knowledge of the Greeks, they carried this knowledge forward and used this knowledge in observing the motion of the planets.

Applied science

• Indian craftsmen contributed greatly to the progress of chemist. Indian painters developed sustainable colors and invented indigo. It has been told earlier that how the Indian blacksmiths made the first steel in the world.
• Medicine In ancient India, the Vaidyas studied anatomy (Anne Tommy). He devised methods to diagnose diseases and suggested medicine for treatment. In the second century of Christ, two great scholars of Ayurveda were born in India - Sushruta and Charaka. In his Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta described the treatment of motirabind, stones and many other diseases. Charaka Samhita of Charaka is an encyclopedia of Indian medicine. It describes many distinctions of fever, leprosy, epilepsy and tuberculosis.
• In ancient times, the ancient Indians gained some knowledge of the ocean voyage and made some contribution to the art of shipbuilding. But since the centers of major political powers were far from the seashore and there was no threat from the sea, the kings of ancient India did not pay special attention to shipping.

Muhammad Ghori Life History | Invasion of Muhammad Ghori | Death of Muhammad Ghori

Muhammad Ghori- An Analysis

It was Shihabdin alias Mayjuddin Mohammad Ghori who invaded India in the 12th century. Mohammad Ghori always respected his elder brother Ghiyasuddin and held himself under him despite being an independent ruler. After Giyasuddin's death in 1203 AD, Mohammad Ghori assumed the title of Gudjuddin as an independent ruler and Gore Made the capital.

In 1205 AD, Mohammed Ghori lost the fierce Malik Bahauddin Tughril to the Khwarism ruler of Iran in the battle of blindfolding. This defeat proved to be a hidden boon for the Europeans as they now lost their fascination with Asia and had to completely concentrate on India. After Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud Ghaznavi and thereafter Muhammad Ghori invaded India and slaughtered and looted it. The Ottoman Empire in India is attributed to Muhammad Ghori.

Muhammad was the ruler of Ghazni, a small mountainous region between Gauri Ghazni and Herat. The Gori dynasty emerged in the middle of the 12th century. The foundation of the Gore dynasty was laid by Alla-ud-din Jahansoj. After Jahansoj's death, his son Saif-ud-din Gori ascended the throne. Ghori kingdom was the base of northwest Afghanistan. Ghori was initially under Ghajini.

Muhammad Gauri was of Sansabani dynasty. Muhammad Gauri's full name was Shihabuddin Muhammad Ghori. Ghyasuddin Muhammad Gauri was its elder brother. Ghyasuddin Muhammad Gauri established Gore as an independent state in 1163 AD. In 1173 AD, Ghiyasuddin handed over the territory of Ghor to his younger brother Muhammad Ghori and started the struggle against Khwarism by taking possession of Ghazni himself. Muhammad Ghori departed towards India. Muhammad Gauri was an Afghan general. It was also a great conqueror and military operator.

Invasion of Muhammad Ghori

• The purpose of Muhammad Ghori's invasion was different from that of Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• It was interested in looting in India as well as expansion of the Islamic empire. That is why Muhammad Ghori, the founder of the Ottoman Empire in India, is considered.
• Gauri launched the first attack on Multan in 1175 AD. At this time, there were enchanting rulers of Shia faith. They were bandhuds before becoming enchanting Muslims. Gauri had conquered Multan.
• Gauri made a second invasion of Gujarat in 1178 AD, but was defeated by Moolraj II at the junction of Mount Abu. This was the first defeat of Muhammad Ghori in India. This war was conducted by the heroine Devi, who was the wife of Mulraj.
• Taking a lesson from this war, Gauri first started efforts to take possession of India over Punjab.
• Punjab was conquered between 1179-86 AD.
• In 1179 AD, Sylkot was captured.
• By 1186 AD, Gauri had conquered Lahore, Shyalkot and Bhrittinda. Prithviraj Chauhan III had authority over Tabarhind. Tabarhind was the border area of ​​Prithviraj Chauhan. Gauri had taken control over it, due to which war between Gauri Wachauhan became inevitable.

First Battle of Tarain

In 1194 AD, Prithviraj III defeated Gauri in the first battle of Tarain but could not exhaust his power.

Second Battle of Tarain

• In 1192 AD, Gauri defeated Prithviraj III and conquered areas up to Ajmer and Delhi and with this the Chauhan empire was destroyed. The feudal king of Prithviraj and the Tomar ruler Govindaraja of Delhi died in the Second Battle of Tarain.
• According to Chandbardai, after the defeat in the war, Prithviraj III was taken captive and taken to Ghazni. Muhammad Ghori was killed by dropping the arrow.
• According to Hasam Nizami, after being defeated in the war, Prithviraj accepted subjugation and Gauri ruled him under Ajmer. Further tried to revolt against Gauri in which Prithviraj was killed. Most scholars accept this, which is confirmed by the coins obtained from Ajmer, in which on one side is written the horse shape and Muhammad-bin-Saam. On the other side, the shape of a bull is made and Prithviraj is written.
• After 1192 AD, Gauri declared his slave Aibak the administrator of Indian territories.
• Two commanders of Gauri, Qutubuddin Aibak and Bakhtiar Khilji, started conquering Indian territories after 1194 AD.
• Bakhtiyar Khilji won the western region of Bihar and Bengal from the Sena ruler Laxmansen and during this time he destroyed universities like Nalanda University, Vikramshila (Bihar) and Odantipur (Bengal).
• Bakhtiar Khilji was defeated by the Magh ruler of Assam and in 1205 AD, Muhammad Ghori was killed by Bakhtiyar Khilji's military officer, Alimardan.
• Qutbuddin Aibak attacked Bhil II, ruler of Anhilwada in 1195 AD but Aibak was defeated.
• Aibak invaded Anhilvada again in 1197 AD and looted it.Bhim II did not accept subjugation but his economic condition was deteriorated by successive wars. Therefore, after Bhima's death, the Baghel dynasty was established in Gujarat in place of Solanki dynasty.
• In 1203 A.D., Aibak conquered Kalinjar from the Chandela ruler Paramardidev.

Death of muhammad gauri

• In 1206 AD, Muhammad Ghauri made a final attack on India to suppress the rebellion of the Khokhar tribe of Punjab and during this campaign Gauri was killed near West Pakistan.
• Gandhi appointed his slaves as his successor before his death.
• Gandhi had run some coins bearing the shape of Lakshmi.

After Gauri's death, his empire was divided into three of his principal slaves: -

1. Qutbuddin Aibak - Indian Territory. Aibak made Delhi the center of the Islamic empire.
2. Tajuddin Yaldoz - Ghazni region.
3. Nasiruddeen Kubacha - Upper and Sindh (Pakistan)

• Ghori set up an army under Indraprastha under the leadership of his trusted assistant 'Aibak' whose task was to make a treaty with the Hindu rulers and suppress the rebellion. Hence Aibak's first head office was Indraprastha near Delhi. Here in Ajmer, Hariraj tried to free the Chauhans by removing Govindaraja but lost to Aibak. Henceforth (1194 AD), Ajmer took Ajmer under his direct control.

 Qutbuddin Aibak built two architecture: -

1. Built the first mosque in Delhi called Kuwait-ul-Islam.
2. In 1196 AD, the Sanskrit University, built by Vigrahaja IV (Visaladeva) in Ajmer, was torn down and started building a two-and-a-half-day mosque called Jhopra, which was completed in 1200 AD.

Cultural achievement

• Fakhruddin Raji and Nazami Uruji were in Ghori's court.
• Gori carried coins bearing the figures of Hindu Goddess Lakshmi and Nandi, on which Mohammed bin Sama is written in Devanagari script.
• Iqta system in India was started by Mohammad Ghori.

Iqta arrangement

The meaning of iqta is - to provide land in the form of salary in place of money. The iqta system started outside India in Persia (Iran) region and in West Asia. Qutbuddin Aibak was the first iqta of Hansi (Haryana) given by Muhammad Ghani in India as the field Iqta. Shortly thereafter, the area of ​​Uchh (Sindh) was given to Nasiruddin Qubacha by Muhammad Ghauri as Iqta. But administratively Iqta was founded by Iltutmish. Iltutmish started the 'Ekta' system.

There were two types of iqta: -

• Big iqta - Such areas were given to important rich and military officers. These Iqtedar Iqta used to do revenue and land as well as military and administrative duties.
• Chhoti Iqta - These were usually provided to soldiers as salary. Equity related to these used to collect only revenue.

Why was the iqta system needed?

The iqta system began with the need of the early Turkish sultans. The areas of the Sultanate situated away from the capital, which could not easily recover revenue, were given by the Sultan as a unit. These units were provided in lieu of administrative and military service of the Sultan.

In this way, the sultans divided the units and established the influence of the sultanate in the border areas and also collected revenue regularly. On the other hand, the officer concerned got an area under him, in which he could get the revenue according to his ability. Iltutmish distributed 2000 iqtas to the Turkish Amirs to break the power of Hindu zamindars in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

Equatorial Functions

• Iqtadar used to carry out administrative and military functions in his iqta. From the revenue received from Iqta, he used to take his salary and administrative and military expenses and deposit the remaining amount in the Sultan's treasury. This remaining amount was called Fawazil.
• Iqtadar ruled under the name of Sultan in his Iqta, his position was not hereditary. And Ikedar did not even have the right to run coins.
• The post of Equator was transferable. From time to time, the sultan transferred the Iktadars. Here the authority of the Sultan is reflected on the Iktaedar. Thus the Sultan had more control over his equators in the Rajput period feudal lordship.
• Feroze Tughlaq had inherited the post of Ikedar.

Equity system faults

Equaters generally used to do indecency by manipulating the income and expenses of the iqta. Different sultans took different steps to prevent this and to establish control over the ektadars, such as-

• Balban appointed an officer named Khwaja, who used to assess the income of Iqta land.
• Alauddin emphasized the transfer of Iktadars and did not put any Iktadar in one Ikte for more than 3 years. In addition, it increased the intervention of the central administration in the Iqta system.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq separately prescribed the personal income of the Iqtedar and the salary of the soldiers under him.
• Muhammad bin Tughluq imposed extreme control over the Iqtadars. He appointed an officer named Amir in the Iqta region equivalent to the Iqtadars who administered the administration of the Iqtas, while allowing the right of recovery to the Iqtadar.
• Similarly, Muhammad bin Tughluq announced the payment of cash salary from the central treasury to the soldiers under Iqtedar, due to this excessive control, the Iqtadars revolted during the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi was a born general. He never lost any of his campaigns whether in India or in Central Asia. Mohammad Ghori was defeated on several occasions but it was characterized by his extraordinary ability to recover from defeats and rectify mistakes.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi is credited with entering into the land of India. However, Mohammad Ghori has the credit for laying the foundation of Muslim state in India. However, the foundation was laid by Mahmud Ghaznavi on which Ghori built the building of the Turkish empire.
• did. Because Ghaznavi had taken control of Punjab and broke India's advance security line.
• Both pursued religion in fulfillment of their objectives.

Actually both had different situations and challenges and both met their primary objectives and hence both are successful. While Mahmud Ghaznavi was to gain the wealth of Hind, Ghori was to establish an empire in Hind.

Mahmud Ghaznavi

Mahmud Ghaznavi - An Analysis

The Turks arrived in the Abbasid Empire in the 9th century as palaces guards and hired soldiers, but soon came to the role of king-maker there. The Turk invasion in India was completed in two stages. The leader of the first phase was Mahmud Ghaznavi and the second was Mohammad Ghori. After the Arabs, the Turks invaded India. The Turks were an uncivilized and barbaric race inhabiting the northwestern borders of China.

The Ekturk chieftain named Alaptagin established an independent Ottoman state in Ghazni. Alaptagin's slave and son-in-law Subuktagin took possession of Ghazni in 977 AD. Mahmud Ghaznavi was the son of Subuktagin. Mahmud Ghaznavi was the ruler of Khorasan during his father's time. After the death of Subuktagin, his son and successor Mahmud Ghaznavi ascended the throne of Ghazni in 998 AD. At this time Mahmud Ghaznavi was 27 years old. His capital was Ghaznavi.

Reasons for the attack:

• Promotion of Religion - The main objective of Mahmud Ghaznavi's invasion was to achieve the success of Hindus so that the period of imperialism could run in Central Asia. His attacks were not intended to establish a permanent Muslim empire in India. The historian Havell states that 'he also looted Baghdad mercilessly like the Somnath Temple if he hoped to get so much money from there'.
• Major Campaign - According to Henry Elliot, Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked India 7 times. The Khyber Pass, which was called the Gateway of India, was won by Subuktagan. After crossing this pass, Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded India.
• The first invasion of Ghaznavi occurred in 1001 AD on the royalists. During the time of Chenab Mahmud Ghaznavi, this kingdom was extended from some river to the Hindukush mountain. Kabul, Punjab etc. areas included contemporary rulers.
• In 1010, Mahmud looted Nagarkot and defeated the Union of Hindus in the Talwadi War in 4040 AD.
• In 1014 AD, the Chakraswamy temple of Thaneshwar was looted.
• Unsuccessfully tried to win Lohkot (Loharin) fort in Kashmir in 1015 AD. This was the first defeat of Ghaznavi's army mainly due to unfavorable weather. After this, he unsuccessfully tried to conquer Kashmir in 1024 AD.
• In 1019 AD, Mahmud laid siege to the Kalinjar fort. Because, the ruler of here, Vidyadhar Chandel (described by Muslim writers as the most powerful ruler), formed a union with the new ruler Trilochanpal of Kannauj and Trilochanpal, the royal ruler of Punjab. The chief of this association was Vidyadhar.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi laid siege to the fort of Gwalior (Kalininger), but the decisive power test could not take place. Vidyadhar was the only Chandel ruler who was not defeated by Mahmud and a treaty was struck between the two.
• At the same time, Punjab was merged with the Ghaznavi Empire in 022 AD. Aiyaruk was appointed Subedar of Punjab.
• In 1025 AD, Mahmud attacked Somnath temple of Gujarat. The contemporary Chalukya ruler Bhima was the first to have the temple rebuilt after Gajnavi left.
• In 1027 AD, he came to India to punish the Jats of Sindh. Mahmud Ghaznavi died in 1030 AD.

The following scholars lived in the court of Mahmud Ghaznavi

• Abu Nastra Utbi - It was this invading court historian who mentioned most of the attacks of Mahmud Ghaznavi from 1000 AD in his book Tithi Yamini or 'Kitab Yamini'.
• Khwaja Ahmed- This was the wazir of Mahmud Ghaznavi. Khwaja Ahmad handled administrative tasks efficiently under Mahmud's absence for 18 years. Later Mahmud Ghaznavi had his wazir imprisoned in an Indian fort.
• Abul Fazl was the author of Ba'ihaki-tithi A. Subuktaginaka. This is called the Peps of the East by Liverpool. The earliest mention of Sultanate Yagin painting is found in the 'History of Ghaznavis' written by Baihaki.
• Firdausi - This historian wrote a poem in Persian on the order of 1000 verses Shahnama Mahmud Ghaznavi.
• It was Alberuni-royalty. It debated with Brahmin priests in Ghaznavi.
• Farabi was a scholar of philosophy.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi's court poet Farukhi mentions the Nigarkhana (Chitra Vithika) built by Lahore in Mahmud. It also has a Shabih or individual figure of Mahmud Ghaznavi. He was the first Sultan to have his portrait painted.
• On the Navar River, Mahmud built the Barh-e-Sultan Dam and a university, library and museum in Ghazni.
• Amongst the Muslim rulers, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the first to coin coins in Indian way. These coins were called Delhiwala whose weight was 56 grains.

Alberuni

Nickname - Abu Rehan; Title - Vidyasagar (conferred by Indian Brahmins); First Muslim Indologists
Special-Alberuni was the first Muslim who learned Sanskrit and studied the Gita and Puranas.

Book-

• Kitab-ur-Rehla or Kitab-ul-Hind or Tehathkiq-e-Hind or Min Makala. This book is called the mirror of the V century.
• Evolka - Created this book after migration to India. Alberuni composed about 443 works.
• Kitabas Saydna - This is a book of medicines written by Alberuni which was translated by Bakr in Persian.
• Translation - English translation of Kitab-Ulatra-Hind written in Arabic was done by Edward Sachau in 888 AD, Rajinikanth Sharma in Hindi.
• Alberuni was the political advisor to Khwarism Shah of the Mamuni dynasty.
• When Mahmud Ghaznavi won Khwarism, he found Alberuni as a prisoner of war.
• Mahmud appointed Alberuni to the post of regent.
• He came to India with Mahmud in 1018–19 AD.
• Alberuni lived for 10 years in India and wrote the book 'Kitab Ul Hind' around 1030 AD. Alsaruni was a philosopher, mathematician, sociologist, physician and astrologer. He translated the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali into Arabic. He considered the Yogasutra as equivalent to Sufism. Alberuni studied the numerology and astrology of Kapil. Plato and Aristotle are also mentioned in his book. Alberuni was very much influenced by the Gita.

Survey of India of Kitabul Hind-Alberuni

There are a total of 80 chapters in this book, in which the maximum description is about astronomy. Stanley Lanepool has called Kitabul Hind a magical island of completely impartial research amidst the world of colliding swords, burning cities and looted temples. 

It has given details of many cities of India including longitudinal. However, Alberuni did not write anything about the states of South India and very rarely mentions the political life of the time.

Social Status-

• Chatavarna describes the Varna system in Indian society. They refer to paired alphabets. According to him Brahmins and Kshatriyas were one pair (couple) and Vaishya and Shudra were the other pair. The category of untouchables under the four varnas were 8 Antyajas called Allam-Gallams.
• Social discrimination was at its peak at this time. The Brahmin had the right to have four wives, Kshatriya three, Vaishya two and Shudra one wife. Alberuni states that there was no tatrak in the marriage. The widow did not remarry. Inter-caste marriages were prevalent only among the Antyajas.

Education-

• According to Alberuni, Vikramshila, Nalanda, Udhapur, Kashmir and Benaras were the major educational centers at this time. According to him, "There are many books available to Hindus in relation to every branch of science." Children used to use chalk and slate in school. According to Alberuni, "In north-India people used to write tree bark while in south India palm leaves were written."
• The original subjects of literature at this time were 'Kattni-matam' (thoughts of the intermediary) and 'Samay-matrak' (autobiography of a prostitute). Damodar Gupta, a minister of the king of Kashmir, wrote a book called Kuttani-Matam and Kshemendra (990-1065 AD) Samay Matraka.

Religion-

• The two major festivals of Alberuni are Ramnavami and Shivaratri. According to him, there was also differentiation in religion because educated people were monotheists while uneducated (common people) was Bahdevists. He describes the Vaishnava sect as the most popular religion. The Vaishya and Shudra did not have the right to read the Vedas.

Architectural

• It is known from the description of Alberuni and Utbi that Kannauj was very elaborate and magnificent.

Economic Condition-

• It was advanced at this time. There was a concentration of wealth in the temples. This was a type of bank at this time. This is why the first target of the invaders was the temple itself. Usury was prohibited in society and only Shudras were allowed to do so.

Political situation-

• Alberuni mentions the political situation nominally. At this time India was divided into small states and the weakness of one state was the means of power of another state.

In fact, Alberuni's survey presents a fragmented picture of a fragmented India, a fragmented society. It only exposes discrimination on the edge of politics, society, religion and even maternity. In such a situation, if the Indians go on losing one by one in the face of the Ottoman invasion, then it is not surprising that a fragmented society can only give a divided politics.

Mangol Invasion of Sindh

Mongol invasion of Sindh - An Analysis

Contact between India and Arabia started in the 7th century itself. But political relations were established during the invasion of Sindh in 712 AD. The arrival of Arabs in India is not as politically important as the other sides. Arab invaders could not build the kind of empire in India as they had in different parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Even in Sindh, his power did not last long. But the long-term results seem to indicate that the Arabs greatly affected Indian life and were also affected.

If seen from the immediate political point of view, it can be said that the Arabs presented a challenge that emerged to face such powers, which remained in India for the next three hundred years. The reputation of Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, Chalukyas was established due to their opposition to the Arabs. The long-standing importance of the Arabs was that they demonstrated religious tolerance by not establishing religion in India. However, Zajia was done.

The economic importance of the Arabs' arrival to India can be seen in the field of trade. Indian merchants aligned with the maritime monopoly of Arab merchants and kept their trading activities dynamic in the western world and African territories. This was not the Arabs' first contact with India. The Arabs used to visit the Malabar Coast earlier in terms of trade and commerce. This time it was new that he entered Sindh with the goal of trade and commerce as well as religion and political expansion.

The first invasion of India by the Arabs took place at the police station of Bombay in 636 AD during the reign of Khalifa Omar, which was unsuccessful. Then in the first decade of the 8th century, Ibn Alhari Al Bahitt won the Makran of Sindh, which paved the way for the Sindh conquest.

• The first successful campaign of the Arabs on India took place in 742 AD under the leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim.
• Muhammad-bin-Qasim defeated "Dahir" and captured "Sindh".
• Qasim also captured 'Multan' and named it the City of Gold.
• Muhammad bin Qasim first introduced jizya tax in India.
• Jaziya tax was collected from non-Muslims who did not accept Islam.
• Muhammad-bin-Qasim built canals (4370) for irrigation.
• The Abbasid Caliphs declared Baghdad (Iraq) as the capital of the Arab world.
• The Abbasi Caliphs Mansu and Aaron Rashid gave patronage to Indian scholars, craftsmen, doctors and astrologers.
• Khalifa Mansur got the Arabic translation of the Brahma Siddhanta.
• Khalifa Aaron Rashid got the Arabic translation of Charaka Samhita.
• The Arabs learned the principles of numerals, darshamalavas and mathematics.

Immediate reason

In Sindh this time was ruled by Brahmin dynasty, whose founder was Chach. Chach's son was Dahir. At the time of Dahir, some Arab ships from Lanka were looted by the pirates of Deval. This incident became the immediate cause of the Arabs invasion of Sindh. At the same time, some historians believe that the primary reason for the invasion was the spread of Islam.

Hajjaj, the Subedar of Iraq, demanded compensation for loot from Dahir, which Dahir rejected. So Hajjaj obtained permission from the Khalifa Wahid and sent three generals respectively. Firstly, Ubaidullah then Verdul attacked Sindh. Both these attacks were unsuccessful. Hajjaj eventually sent 17-year-old Muhammad bin Qasim to Sindh Vijay.

In 711–12 AD, Qasim invaded India through the Makran route. Qasim's army consisted of Manjanik or Magnal and Nauphatha throwing camels, cavalry and shilla (stones). And Qasim was assisted by Jats, rams and rebellious Buddhists.

Major campaigns of Muhammad bin-Qasim

Debal or Daol - This is where Qasim first put Jaziya. After Deval, Qasim successfully attacked Neerun, Sehwan and Sisam. Qasim won Rabar after winning Sisam. Dahir was killed fighting in Rabar. After his death, his wife Ranibai took the front against the Arabs. But, seeing himself losing he committed Jauhar.

Aror - After Brahmanism, Alor was conquered by the capital of Dahir. Aror Vijay gives complete victory to Sindh Vijay. Qasim won Sikka and Multan after the Multan-Alor victory. The merchants of the coinage place collectively accepted Muhammad bin Qasim as their master. Multan was the last victory of Qasim. From here he got so much gold Mitra that Multan was named Sone Ka Nagar (Swarna Nagar).

After the Sindh conquest, Qasim appointed Brahmins to higher positions. After Multan Vijay, Qasim sent an army under Abu-Hakim to conquer Kannauj. However, the Arab invaders could not advance to Sindh because Lalitaditya of Kashmir defeated them and stopped their spread further. When the Arabs tried to move beyond Sindh in 725 AD, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Chalukyas of Badami defeated them. This is why the Arab traveler Suleman described the Pratihara ruler Mihirbhoja as the Arabs (the greatest enemy of the Muslims).

It is true that Arabs should be politically confined to Sindh, but it is not logical for a scholarly historian to say that this was a consequential victory. Because, its social, religious, economic and cultural consequences are visible which are as follows -

• The Arabs had the most impact on the economic sector. The Arabs had a monopoly on maritime trade at this time. Indian traders reached Europe and Africa by joining with Arabs.
• Indian scientists like Malr, Manak, Bazigar, Sindbad reached the court of Baghdad.
• Amir Khusro tells us that Arab astrologer Abmashar came to Benares and studied astrology for 40 years.
• A medical practitioner named Manak treated Khalifa Aaron.
• Arabs were introduced to Indian numerals such as square root, cube root, zero, decimal etc.
• "The Arabs spread Indian knowledge in Europe and the main reason for the spread of knowledge in Europe from 8th and 9th century was the contact of Arabs with India.
• Article of Indian Constitution It has been said in 343 that only the international forms of Indian numerals will be used for the official purposes of the Union. Therefore, it is the same Indian numbers that have gained international form today.
• According to some historians chess came to India from Arabia. But, according to Amir Khusro, the game originated in India, which was called Chaturanga in ancient times.
• Ibnal Mukaffa translated the Indian novel Panchatantra (Ethics) into Arabic under the names Kalil and Dimmana. Brahmagupta's book of mathematics 'Brahmasiddhanta' and 'Khand Khandayak' were translated into Arabic by Alhazari and Ibrahim Pinjari.
• The religion of Islam entered Sindh and Muslim settlements were established in Multan and Mansura. Mansura city became the capital of the Arabs in Sindh. The Arabs settled the city of Almafuja to protect themselves from the attacks of the Pratiharas.
• The Caliphs of Baghdad provided patronage to Indian scholars. During the time of Khalifa Mansoor, Arab scholars went to Baghdad with 'Brahm-Siddhant' and 'Khandkhaday' composed by Brahmagupta and Alrafzari, in collaboration with Indian scholars, translated these texts into Arabic.

Islam Religion | Islam Religion History | Islam Religion Founder

Islam religion - An analysis

The word Islam means: 'surrender to Allah'. Thus the Muslim is the one who has dedicated himself to Allah. That is, Islam started following the rules of religion. The basic tenet of Islam: To consider Allah the Almighty, the only God and foster of the world, and Hazrat Muhammad as their messenger or prophet. Islam is opposed to avatarism, idolatry and casteism. This vote recognizes ritual, but the principle of rebirth is not valid in it. It is important that the concept of religion in Islam was born first and later the state's nature became clear. The early organized community that believed in Islam was called Ummat, which was the focal point of the Islamic State.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, founded on the teachings of the Quran, the last divine book on the behalf of Allah and conveyed to humans by the prophet, Muhammad.

Islam has 5 major pillars of monotheistic religion:-

(1)Kalma - Believing in Allah and His Messenger. 

(2)Namaz - Every Muslim should offer Namaz (prayer) 5 times daily.

(3)Zakat - Zakat is a voluntary donation. Every Muslim will have to donate 1/40 part (2.5%) of their total wealth every year. It was religious to use Batra in Zakat's Vasuli. Zakat had to be paid even if the owner of the property was more than a specified amount. The minimum amount of this property was called 'Nisab'.

Fact -
Mughal emperor Akbar stopped the collection of zakat on items used in daily life, his successor Jahangir abolished zakat on import and export. In relation to import-export, 2% of the value of zakat goods was taken. Sadka was also a type of zakat that was a donation given on a particular day or festival.

(4)Roja - Fasting

(5)Hajj - Every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca in his lifetime.

• Islamic state is a religious state in which Quran is the constitution of the state. This state should be compatible with Sharia.
• Timeline - Development of 4 ideologies - Malrakpanti, Shafiist, Hanbalpanthi and Hanifapanthi for the interpretation of Sharia
• Of this, only the Hanifi sect of Abuhanifah is allowed to live as Islamic personnel in the Islamic State.
• It is significant that the financial policy of the Delhi Sultanate was based on the principles of taxation presented by the Hanifi Sect.
• When a person does not follow the Shari'a, a fatwa will be issued against him.
• A set of Quran, Hadith, Ijma, and Kayas is called Shari'a. It is important that these are also the source of Muslim justice.

After the death of Hazrat Muhammad, Islam was divided into two Shia and Sunni sects :-

1. Sunnis tell those who believe in Sunna. Listening is a description of the statements and actions of Hazrat Muhammad.
2. The Shias believe in Ali's teachings and consider him the successor of Hazrat Muhammad. Ali was the son-in-law of Hazrat Muhammad.

Important terminology

1. Quran - is derived from the word Iqra (recite) called Ilm-e-Allah (Word of God). It has a total of 114 suras (chapters or lines).
2. Sunnah or Hadith - There are traditions associated with the Prophet, under which his memorized words and activities come.
3. Qiyas - Argument based on harmony.
4. Ijma - There are opinions based on consensus among the religious leaders of Islam. It is also defined as the consent of the community. The law broadly interpreted by Mujtahid, ie, the jurisprudence, was called Ijma.
5. Ghazi - It means to kill the heretics. Ghazi used to enlist in the Sultan's army as a volunteer. They did not get any regular salary from the state and got a share from the Khams. Along with being a Ghazi warrior, he was also a protector of religion. / He was responsible for protecting and spreading Islam. Mahmud Ghaznavi assumed the title of Ghazi. Ghiyushin Tughlaq was the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate to add Ghazi before his name. In 454 AD Bahlol Lodi assumed the title of 'Ghazi'. Babar assumed the title of Ghazi after the Khanwa war on 4545 AD.

Important facts related to Islam religion:

• The prophet of Islam was the prophet 'Muhammad Sahab'. His father Abdullah and mother Amina belonged to a clan called Quraysh.
• Prophet Muhammad was also opposed by the people due to which he was forced to go to Mecca from Mecca on 622 AD. It was only called Madin Tunnabi (the city of the prophet) or Madina. This incident is called Hijat and it is here (622 AD) that Hijri Samvat is considered to be the beginning.
• Hazrat Muhammad attained enlightenment in a cave named Heera near Mecca in 630 AD.
• 24th September The Prophet's journey from Mecca to Medina is known as the Muslim era in the world of Islam.
• Hazrat Muhammad was married at the age of 25 to a widow named Khadija.
• Hazrat Muhammad's daughter's name is Fatima and son-in-law's name is Ali Hassain.
• The angel Gabriel communicated the Quran to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic.
• Ali was assassinated in 661 AD. Ali's son Hussain was killed in 680 in Karbala. These killings gave Shia a definitive view.
• The successor of Hazrat Muhammad was called Khalifa.
• The post of Caliph in the Islamic world continued till 1924 AD. It was overthrown by Turkish ruler Mustafa Kamalpasha in 1924 AD.
• Ibn Ishaq first wrote the life character of Hazrat Muhammad.
• Hazrat Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi.